After gaining independence in 1947, India faced many challenges in rebuilding and reshaping the country, and education was one of the most critical sectors needing reform. The British colonial rule had left the Indian education system in a fragmented manner, with low literacy rates, limited access to schools, poor infrastructure and an education system that mainly served the elite. After recognizing education as a powerful tool for social and economic development, Indian leaders and policymakers initiated various reforms to make education accessible, equitable, and relevant to India’s development needs. These efforts have evolved over the decades, and today, India's education system is more inclusive and diverse, with a broader range of opportunities than ever before. India’s journey toward an affordable and accessible education system began with early reforms aimed at providing free and compulsory education to all children.
This vision was first officially expressed in the Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, which included Article 45 in the Directive Principles of State Policy. This article encouraged the government to make education free and compulsory for children up to the age of 14, laying the foundation for a system where every child’s right to education would be recognized and encouraged. Though, achieving this vision took time and numerous efforts, but it established a sense of responsibility for the government to provide universal education. In 1948, the University Education Commission, led by Dr. S.Radhakrishnan, marked one of the first major steps toward education reform. This commission aimed to improve higher education by recommending universities that they should focus on advancing knowledge, supporting research, and building moral values in students. The commission’s goal was to prepare individuals for the challenges of nation-building in a newly independent India. The following reform, in 1952, was the Secondary Education Commission, which encouraged a more practical approach to education by introducing vocational training that would give students hands-on skills useful for employment. Together, these early steps created a foundation for future reforms that continued to shape the Indian education system.
After that one of the most influential reforms in Indian education came with the Kothari Commission, established between 1964 and 1966 under Dr. D.S. Kothari. This commission proposed a new structure for the Indian education system, called the 10+2+3 structure, which is still used today. It involves ten years of general school education, followed by two years of higher secondary education, and three years of undergraduate studies. The Kothari Commission's recommendations aimed to create a uniform education system across the country that would ensure equal access to quality education for everyone. After understanding the need to address social inequalities, the commission promoted the idea of a national education system that would give students from all backgrounds the same opportunities. It also highlighted the huge importance of focusing on science and technology education to drive economic and technological growth in India. These recommendations laid the groundwork for India’s first National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1968, which aimed to improve the quality and reach of education, with an emphasis on scientific education and the promotion of regional languages. The policy marked a significant step in creating a more unified and accessible education system.
Then, in 1986, another milestone was reached with the introduction of a new National Policy on Education (NPE), which sought to reduce inequalities in education and ensure that all students had access to similar opportunities. The 1986 NPE aimed to improve access to education for disadvantaged groups, including Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and women, so that education could serve as a tool for social equality. A notable part of the 1986 policy was “Operation Blackboard,” an initiative to improve primary schools by providing better infrastructure and teaching resources to ensure a quality learning environment for young children. The policy also focused on adult education programs to support literacy among adults who had missed out on formal education earlier in life. Distance learning became more widespread, thanks to open universities like Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), which provided flexible learning options for students across the country. The National Policy on Education, initially introduced in 1986, was revised in 1992 to address emerging challenges brought on by India's shift toward a more liberalized economy. This update aimed to equip the education system to meet the demands of globalization and economic reforms, ensuring that students and professionals could adapt to a rapidly changing, competitive global landscape.
The 1992 revision emphasized the importance of secondary education and supported decentralizing education management to allow states more control over local educational needs. This step helped make the education system more adaptable to regional requirements and laid the foundation for greater inclusion. Then, in 2001, the Indian government launched the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), a nationwide program aimed at universalizing elementary education. SSA was a major effort to improve school infrastructure, train teachers, and ensure that every child could enroll in and complete elementary education. This program focused on creating a school environment that encouraged enrollment and regular attendance, particularly for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. The Right to Education (RTE) Act of 2009 took this commitment further by making education a fundamental right for children aged 6 to 14. The Right to Education (RTE) Act ensured that education would be free and compulsory for all children in this age group, making it mandatory for the government to support children’s access to education. This law also set minimum standards for schools, such as requiring proper infrastructure, qualified teachers, and manageable class sizes, which strengthened the quality of education provided across the country.
Together, SSA and the RTE Act represented a significant move toward universalizing elementary education and ensuring that every child in India has the opportunity to learn. In recent years, technological advancements have significantly shaped Indian education, especially with the new era which is concentrated toward digital learning. The Digital India initiative has played a key role in promoting digital literacy and improving digital infrastructure to make online learning accessible to more students and teachers. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance and the huge need for digital education, as schools and colleges shifted to remote learning to prevent the virus’s spread. During this time, online platforms and resources like SWAYAM, DIKSHA, and the National Digital Library became essential for continuing education not only for teachers or students but for everyone. These resources helped many students access learning materials from home, though the pandemic also highlighted the digital divide. Many students in rural and economically disadvantaged areas lacked the devices or internet connections needed to participate in online learning. After recognizing this challenge, the government has increased its efforts to expand digital infrastructure and make online learning resources more inclusive.
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 further emphasizes digital education as an essential part of preparing students with the skills they need in the 21st century. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 represents a new era in Indian education, introducing comprehensive changes that aim to make learning more holistic, flexible, and suited to modern needs. The NEP 2020 proposes a new school structure of 5+3+3+4, which divides schooling into foundational, preparatory, middle, and secondary stages. This model replaces the traditional 10+2+3 structure and focuses on supporting children’s cognitive and emotional development at each stage. The NEP 2020 also emphasizes vocational training from an early age to help students develop practical skills that will prepare them for various career paths. In higher education, the NEP encourages flexibility by allowing students to enter and exit degree programs at multiple points, making it easier for people to pursue education in a way that suits their life circumstances or conditions. The NEP also highlights the importance of preserving linguistic diversity by promoting regional languages in primary education, allowing children to learn in their mother tongue. Additionally, NEP 2020 seeks to promote research and innovation by proposing the establishment of a National Research Foundation, which would support a culture of research and foster new ideas and advancements in Indian education.
These reforms together signal India’s commitment to an inclusive and forward-looking education system that meets the needs of its diverse population and evolving economy. India’s journey toward building a valuable, accessible, and affordable education system post-1947 has been gradual and complex. From the early ideals of universal education in the Constitution to the structured reforms of the Kothari Commission, the expansion of access under the NPE of 1986, and the game-changing Right to Education Act, each policy and initiative has contributed significantly to shaping today’s educational landscape. But the latest reform, NEP 2020, represents a transformative shift, focusing on flexibility, skill development, and holistic growth. However, challenges like the digital divide, teacher quality, and infrastructure gaps still need to be addressed to achieve the full potential of India’s education system. With continued focus and adaptation to changing needs, India is ready to build an even stronger foundation for the future through its education system.